References

Our animals 

• Ministry of Health and Ministry for Primary Industries. Antimicrobial Resistance: New Zealand’s current situation and identified areas for action. 2017.  
• Ministry for Primary Industries. Hormonal growth promotants in food.  

Our nutrition 

New Zealand guidance and composition data 

• Ministry of Health. Eating and Activity Guidelines for New Zealand Adults. 2020.  
  • Supports the recommended intake of red meat and its place within varied, balanced eating patterns. 
• Plant & Food Research and the New Zealand Ministry of Health. New Zealand Food Composition Database. FOODfiles 2024.  
  • The primary source for the nutrient composition of New Zealand beef and lamb. 

Overall nutritional contribution of red meat 

• Ruxton CHS, Gordon S. Animal board invited review: The contribution of red meat to adult nutrition and health beyond protein. Animal. 2024;18(3):101-103. doi:10.1016/j.animal.2024.101103. 
  • Provides a recent overview of the protein, iron, zinc and vitamin B12 contribution of red meat. 

Protein quality and essential amino acids 

• Adhikari S, Schop M, de Boer I, Huppertz T. Protein quality in perspective: A review of protein quality metrics and their applications. Nutrients. 2022;14(5):947. doi:10.3390/nu14050947. 
  • Supports the explanation that protein quality considers amino acid composition and digestibility, not only total protein. 
• Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Dietary Protein Quality Evaluation in Human Nutrition: Report of an FAO Expert Consultation. 2013.  
  • Provides the authoritative foundation for assessing protein quality using digestible indispensable amino acids. 
• Wolfe R, Church D, Ferrando A and Moughan P. Consideration of the role of protein quality in determining dietary protein recommendations. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2024. 11:1389664. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2024.1389664 
  • Supports the explanation that protein quality depends on essential amino acid content, digestibility and bioavailability. 

Iron and bioavailability 

• Hurrell R, Egli I. Iron bioavailability and dietary reference values. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2010;91(5):1461S–1467S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2010.28674F. 
  • Supports the explanation that iron absorption varies according to the form of iron, overall diet and individual iron status. 
• Carpenter CE, Mahoney AW. Contributions of heme and nonheme iron to human nutrition. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 1992;31(4):333–367. 
  • Provides foundational evidence for the distinction between haem and non-haem iron.  

Zinc 

• Roohani N, Hurrell R, Kelishadi R, Schulin R. Zinc and its importance for human health: An integrative review. Journal of Research in Medical Sciences. 2013;18(2):144–157.  
  • Supports the explanation that zinc absorption is influenced by the overall food matrix, including the presence of phytate. 

Vitamin B12 

• Watanabe F, Bito T. Vitamin B12 sources and microbial interaction. Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2018;243(2):148–158. doi:10.1177/1535370217746612. 
  • Supports the natural occurrence of vitamin B12 in animal-source foods, including beef and lamb. 

Nutrient density across life stages 

• Beal T, Manohar S, Miachon L, Fanzo J. Nutrient-dense foods and diverse diets are important for ensuring adequate nutrition across the life course. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2024;121(50):e2319007121. doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2319007121 
  • Supports the discussion of nutrient density and changing nutrient needs across life stages. 

Our environment  

• Ministry for the Environment Greenhouse Gas Emissions Tracker, 2017.   
• Case B and Ryan C. (2020). An analysis of carbon stocks and net carbon position for New Zealand sheep and beef farmland. Department of Applied Ecology, School of Science, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland. 
• Beef + Lamb New Zealand. Unpublished information on land area by Territorial Authority suitable for arable plant protein production. 2019.  
• Norton D and Pannell J. (2018). Desk-top assessment of native vegetation on New Zealand sheep and beef farms. School of Forestry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch and Institute for Applied Ecology, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland. 
• Pannell JL, Buckley HL, Case BS, Norton DA. (2021). The significance of sheep and beef farms to conservation of native vegetation in New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 45(1) 
• Zonderland-Thomassen M, Lieffering M, Ledgard S. (2014). Water footprint of beef cattle and sheep produced in New Zealand: water scarcity and eutrophication impacts. Journal of cleaner production, 73, 253-262. 
• Stats NZ.   https://www.stats.govt.nz/indicators/irrigated-land-data-to-2022/  
• OverseerFM website. https://www.overseer.org.nz/overseerfm 

Our communities 

• Business and Economic Research Limited (BERL). Economic and social value of New Zealand's red meat sector 2026  
• Meat Industry Association. Unpublished processing workforce training data. 
• Tanira Kingi, Ahuwhenua – Māori land and agriculture, Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand,  (accessed 9 February 2021)